 Egypt the land of Pharaohs
Commonly known as “The Motherland of the World”, “Land of Civilizations” and “The Greatest Power in Human History”, is reputed worldwide for its distinct 7,000-year-old record of civilization and immense wealth of knowledge. No country on earth boasts a longer recorded history than does Egypt, the Eternal ‘Gift of the Nile’ as described by the Historian Herodotus. Egypt enjoys a unique geographical location, at the juncture of Africa, Asia and Europe, and a favorable climate. It possesses a huge cultural heritage manifest in the Pharaonic, Roman, Coptic and Islamic monuments. It has clear skies and bright sunshine all the year round. |
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 Egypt enjoys a deep-rooted civilization which began when the ancient Egyptians established on the bank of the River Nile the first central state. Throughout centuries, the Egyptians interacted with other civilizations and peoples. Yet, Egypt kept its cultural peculiarity which historians divide into Pharaonic Era which lasted for 3000 years, Greek Era which also lasted for 3000 years, Roman Era which interacted with Coptic Era after Christianity entered Egypt, and finally the Islamic Conquest of Egypt and the Ottoman Rule till the Modern Era launched by Mohamed Ali Pasha, the founder of modern Egypt. |
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 Egypt in the Pharaonic Era
The Pharaonic Era dates back to 3000 years B.C. till Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 323 B.C. During the Pharaonic Era, Egypt witnessed many aspects of progress and renaissance in all fields.
Historians divide the Pharaonic Era into three successive divisions: Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom and Modern Kingdom. The Pharaonic Era is thus divided into three dynasties as follows:
Ancient Age (Dynasties I & II)
In 3200 B.C. Menes managed to unify north and south of Egypt and he established the first ruling dynasty. To secure the unity of Egypt, Menes established the city of Memphis near Delta.
Old Kingdom (Dynasties from III to VI)
 During the Old Kingdom, Egypt enjoyed stability, security and peace, a matter that achieved its economic, cultural and artistic progress in this time. The kings of the Old Kingdom ruled till 2800 B.C. after the throne of Egypt moved to Manf by Zoser, whose pyramid is the oldest known one at Saqqara. The Egyptian civilization flourished in this period, a matter represented in the building of the Giza Pyramids: Khufu (Cheops), Khafre (Chephren) and Menkaura (Mycerinus).
The First Middle Age (Dynasties from VII to X)
This age began in 2200 B.C. when Menthotpe II (Mentuhotep) managed to reunify the country.
 The Middle Kingdom (Dynasties XI& XII)
After Menthotpe II, the Prince of Thebes, managed to reunify the country and founded a strong government, Egypt flourished economically. In 2000 B.C. Amenemhet I played a great role in the renaissance of the Middle Kingdom. The kings and queens of Dynasty XII acquired fame all over the world in the fields of policy, war, culture civilization and religion such as Ahmos, hero of liberation, Amenhotep I who laid down fair standards for wages and incentives, Tuhutmos I, the warrior who expanded the Egyptian borders north and south, and spread out education everywhere, Tuhutmos III who possessed a unique military genius, Tuhutmos IV, the diplomat who was the first to record international agreements. This is in addition to Akhenaton who was the first to call for the oneness of the Creator and Tut Ankh Amun, who gained fame in the modern time. The most famous queens of this time were Ahmos Nefertari, wife of Ahmos I, Tee, mother of Akhenaton, Nefertiti, wife of Akhenaton and Hatchepsut who ruled Egypt for 20 years.
The Second Middle Age (Dynasties XIII, XVII)
In 1725 B.C. the Hyksos attacked Egypt and occupied the Egyptian lands. Yet, the princes of Thebes, led by Ahmos I, managed to expel them out of Egypt.
The Modern Kingdom (Dynasties XVIII, XX)
After Ahmos expelled the Hyksos, he worked on establishing a well-equipped army. Ramsis II, one of the most famous kings of the Modern Kingdom, signed the first peace treaty in history with the Hittites.
The Late Age (Dynasties XXI to XXX)
From Dynasty XXI till Dynasty XVIII, the Assyrians and the Persians occupied Egypt, till the rule of the Pharaohs ended during the reign of Dynasty XXX when Alexander the Great conqured Egypt.
Arts of the Pharaonic Civilization
Architecture
 Ancient Egyptians made outstanding achievements in architecture , as can be clearly seen from the everlasting monuments they have left behind. The first pyramid ever built in Egypt was Zoser's, then Midum's pyramid. However, the Giza pyramids together with the Sphinx, built during the 4th Dynasty, are the most famous of the 97 pyramids built to be tombs for Pharaohs. During the period of the Middle Kingdom, many funerary temples were built. The 12th Dynasty kings were also interested in el-Fayyoum area where they attended to irrigation works. The most famous of those temples was the Labyrinth Temple or the “Maze Palace” as called by the Greeks. The temple was built in Hawwara by King Amenemehet III, who also built castles, fortresses and walls along Egypt's eastern borders. The period of the Middle Kingdom was the heyday of architectural arts, where exquisite inscriptions and fine artworks were engraved on the walls of colossal temples, the most prominent ones were Karnak, Luxor and Abu Simbel. The era of Thutmose I was a turning point in using pyramids as tombs. On the west bank of the Nile at Luxor, there were carved-into-mountains tombs with rich and luxurious funerary furniture. This can be clearly seen in the tomb of Tutankhamun. In order to keep wall inscriptions intact, the artists of the Modern kingdom deliberately used deep slightly embossed engravings, thus, avoiding distortion or erosion.  The most recently discovered tomb of the Valley of Kings was that of the sons of King Ramsis II; a vast tomb containing 15 mummies. Pharaonic obelisks were cut out of granite and erected in two-somes at the entrance of temples. Some of the most beautiful examples of architectural art in the ancient Egyptian empire are the temples of Amun, Cheops in Karnak and Luxor, Ramsium and Hetshep-sut at ad-Deir al-Bahari as well as the rock-embedded temples such as the major and minor temples of Abu Simbel. New trends in the architectural, plastic and applied arts emerged as can be clearly seen in the sculptured colossal and minor statues and ornamented temple columns and mural inscriptions. This elevated style is evident in thousands of small statues made from alabaster, wood or ivory and pieces of antiquities made of glass and earthenware and jewelry inlaid with precious stones.
Literature
 Ancient Egyptian monuments still bear witness to their excellent talent in writing and literature. Humanity is indebted to ancient Egyptians for inventing writing, later called by the Greeks the “hieroglyphic alphabet”; composed of 24 letters. Writings were made in black or red ink on papyrus. Egyptians excelled in religious writing which tackled their religious creeds and theories of the after life, secrets of the universe, various myths of gods, prayers and songs. The oldest examples of which were “The Pyramids Texts” and “The Book of the Dead”. Ancient Egyptian writers were excellent story writers. They used words as a tool to convey wisdom and rules of good conduct. Ancient Egyptians were bent on narrating their heritage of wise sayings and proverbs, chanting them in their feasts and ceremonies. They pursued the tradition of documenting current events of their times. This rich cultural climate was instrumental in generating several Egyptian men of letters and philosophers who left masterpieces indicative of a high level of culture and thought in Egypt.
 Music
Music and songs were a favorite object for all Egyptians. Music was used for educating young people as well as in public and private ceremonies, particularly in the army. It was equally used in prayers and the burial of the dead. Egyptians from the Old Kingdom knew wind and stringed instruments such as the “harp” known at that time as “Tipoti”. They also invented many new types of percussion instruments which were further improved across their history.
Ornamentation
 Ornaments, characterized by high artistic precision and beautiful form, were also known to ancient Egyptians. Decorative elements were derived from natural surroundings including papyrus, palm trees, lotus flowers and precious stones. Amulets, believed to protect them against evil spirits, were used. Women, in particular, paid special attention to their own make-up and toilet. They were accustomed to use Kohl (as eye-liner), bracelets, necklaces, rings and henna. Costumes in Pharaonic Egypt varied from one class to another. Clothes were made of soft linen or silk fabrics imported from ancient Syria (Phoenicia). Clothes differed according to the occasion. |
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 Egypt in the Greek Era
Having beaten the Persians in Asia, Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in the year 332 BC and expelled them out of Egypt. Then, he crowned himself as a king in the Pharaonic style and founded a new capital for Egypt named after him as “Alexandria”. Then, he made pilgrimage to Amun's Temple in Siwa Oasis, which was world renowned at that time.
Egypt under the Ptolemies (323 BC-30 BC)
After Alexander's death, Egypt was ruled by his general, Ptolemy who founded the Ptolemic Dynasty that reigned from 323 BC to 30 BC. The Ptolemic rule remained strong only during the reign of the early kings. However, due to the weakness of the ensuing kings and the continuous revolts by the Egyptians, the Ptolemic Dynasty degenerated. Rome soon stepped in, putting an end to the Ptolemic rule during the reign of Cleopatra in 30 BC.
The Egyptian Civilization under the Ptolemies
Alexandria became the capital of the Ptolemic rule in Egypt, where stately palaces and gardens were built. Alexandria was well-known not only as a centre of outstanding achievements in arts, science, industry and trade but also as the prime sea harbor on the Mediterranean Sea, thanks to its well-known Lighthouse, considered by the Greeks as one of the Seven Wonders of the World. Alexandria was further well-known for its University, which symbolized a great Hellenistic- Egyptian civilization.
Alexandria University
At Alexandria University, founded by the Ptolemies, scientists arrived at scientific facts concerning the earth's rotation around the sun and approximate circumference of the planet. The university was also famous for the study of medicine particularly anatomy and surgery. Most famous of the university scientists were the geometrician Euclides, the geographer Ptolemy and the Egyptian historian Maniton.
Library of Alexandria (Bibliotheca Alexandrina) and its Cultural Influence
 The Ptolemies established in Alexandria a large library, which was considered the greatest in the world at that time. The Library contained more than 500,000 papyrus rolls. The Ptolemies ordered that each visiting scientist should donate to the city a copy of his works, thus bringing the number of books at Alexandria Library to more than 700,000. The Ptolemies showed respect for the Egyptian religion, offered sacrifices to Egyptian deities and built temples such as those of Edfu, Dandara and Philae in Aswan. The Ptolemies used to appear in official ceremonies in Pharaohs' apparel. |
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 The Egyptian Civilization
In 30 BC, Egypt was conquered by the Romans and was therefore rendered merely a province in their empire. However, due to its unique geographical position, the fertility of her land and cultural and urban development, Egypt was regarded as the most precious property of the Roman Empire. During this period, agriculture and industry, particularly, glass manufacturing, flourished in Egypt. Egypt was especially known for the creation of the art of glass blowing and monopoly of paper manufacturing as well as perfume, cosmetics and fine linen fabrics. The Egyptian capital, Alexandria, was particularly the largest trading and industrial centre in the east Mediterranean and the second city of the Roman Empire. Alexandria University maintained its position as a centre of scientific research and a seat of learning for scholars from all parts of the world, during the Roman era in Egypt. |
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Islamic Era
 The Islamic era in Egypt was generally the golden age for arts and architecture. Examples of such revival can be seen in the building of several mosques, fortresses and city walls, in addition to the flourishing of decorative arts. These were most evident in the construction of al-Fustat, the first capital of Egypt, where Amr Ibn el-Aas built the first mosque in the country. The Nile meter on the island of Rodha in modern Cairo, built by Abbasid Caliph al-Mutawakel Billah in 245 AH, is known to be the oldest Islamic monument in Egypt. Islamic architecture also flourished mainly in al-Qatay' city and Ahmed Ibn Touloon mosque which was built in the same style of Amr Ibn el-Aas mosque, with the addition of a fountain, minaret, props and the foundation sign board. The minaret of Ahmed Ibn Touloon mosque is known for its unique shape in Egypt derived from the Persian temples known as “Zigurat”. The Fatimid period also witnessed the development of local Islamic architecture. Al-Azhar, al-Anwar and Al-Aqmar mosques are famous examples of Fatimid architecture in Egypt. Al-Geoshi Mausoleum is a model for dome structures and mosques built around the tombs of eminent men of religion. During the Ayyubid period, further advances were made in the field of architecture. Salah ed-Din's (Saladin's) Citadel still stands out as a lofty, striking example of Islamic architecture. The Mamelukes were no less advanced in this field. They also left behind a great wealth of finely designed and decorated mosques, domes, mystics' houses, palaces, schools, khans (inns), fortresses and public drinking fountains. Egyptians under Islamic rule adopted the same techniques and styles of art and ornamentation prevailing in the preceding periods. Most notable arts of this period were wood engraving and ornamentation, assembled dove tailed and lathed wood work. Islamic style textiles, porcelain and stained glass were also widely known during this period. |
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Coptic Era
 Christianity entered Egypt in the half of the first century A.D. When Saint Mark entered Alexandria in 65 A.D., the first Coptic Church was established in Egypt. At the end of the third century A.D., the Roman emperor Diocletian suppressed the Copts and many of them fell martyrs, hence the period was called Era of Martyrs. The year in which Diocletian assumed power (284 A.D.) was taken by the Copts as the beginning of the Coptic calendar. The Coptic architecture flourished in this period where the churches, established in the fifth century A.D. were a model of the Coptic art and architecture. As the ancient Egyptians knew music, the Copts composed melodies similar to that of the ancient Egyptians and up till now melodies in the Coptic Church still have their Pharaonic names as Singari and Itribini. |
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Modern Era
 By virtue of all his up-to-date all encompassing reforms, Muhammad Ali is truly considered the founder of Modern Egypt. He encouraged and sponsored men of learning, scientists and artists. He built a powerful army as well as a military academy. A ship building industry was started in Boulaq, Cairo together with a shipyard in Alexandria.
He specially attended to the administration of government affairs. During the first half of the 19th Century, a full-scale economic revival was in full swing. Special attention was given to agriculture and irrigation, where barrages, dams and canals were built. In industry, Muhammad Ali adopted a policy of dispensing with foreign-made products, and creating national factories and plants to meet the needs of the army and the public. In trade, he sought to provide security for internal trade routes and create a foreign trade fleet. During his reign, trade flourished.
At the same time, Muhammad Ali was enthusiastically interested in spreading education to cater government manpower needs. Schools of various levels and specialties were built and educational missions were sent to Europe to transfer modern sciences to Egypt.
 After his death, Muhammad Ali's successors tried their best to follow his suit by attempting to catch up with European civilization. During the reign of Khedive Ismail, Egypt witnessed an awakening administrative reform, while agriculture, industry, construction and architecture prospered. Most notable of his achievements was the establishment of the Opera House, railroads and the Suez Canal which was opened to international navigation in 1869. Thus, the 19th Century was one of enlightenment, rediscovery of the Egyptian power system and development of human wealth. By the end of the century, Egypt witnessed many revolts against the foreign intervention.
The nationalist movement grew stronger and several popular revolts took place. However, the Orabi Revolution (1882 AD) ended up with Egypt being occupied and declared a protectorate by Britain in 1914. Accordingly, Egypt officially broke off from Ottoman suzerainty. Thus, Egypt entered the 20th Century, suffering under the yoke of British colonialist rule that plundered its resources. Popular resistance and national movements soon escalated under the nationalist leaders: Mostafa Kamel, Muhammad Fareed and Sa'ad Zaghloul, leading the 1919 Revolution calling for independence. The British occupation of Egypt came to an end and the country was declared as an independent state in 1922. The first Egyptian Constitution was issued in 1923.
Later, there ensued a period of economic revival led by the great nationalist economist Tala'at Harb, leading to the establishment of an industrial, productive and services base in all sectors of the economy.
The July 23, 1952 Revolution Under the leadership of Gamal Abdel Nasser, the July 1952 Revolution brought about a host of achievements including the enactment of the first agrarian reform law and the first 5-year plan for socio-economic development in the history of Egypt (1960). Industry and production were developed. The Aswan High Dam was completed (1960-1970). Outstanding achievements were also made in the fields of education, health, agriculture and construction. In the field of foreign policy, Egypt adopted a policy of positive neutrality and encouraging national liberation movements.  Cognizant since its inception of Egypt's leading role in the Arab world, its growing military power and untiring defense of the Palestinian case in world forums, Israel launched a treacherous assault on June 5, 1967 against Egypt, Syria and Jordan, ending up with Israeli occupation of Sinai, the Golan Heights and the West Bank of Jordan. The Egyptian army managed successfully to stand the test of the Israeli troops in a war of attrition. In the meantime, the leader of the July Revolution, Gamal Abdel Nasser, died in September 28, 1970.
 President Anwar El-Sadat proceeded with the policy of mobilizing all state resources for the liberation of the occupied land. On October 6, 1973, both Egyptian and Syrian armies simultaneously launched a battle for liberating Arab lands from Israeli occupation. A few hours after the start of the war, the Egyptian army victoriously crossed to the east bank of the Suez Canal where the Egyptian banner was raised high. In the October War, Egyptian forces scored an outstanding victory. This prompted President Anwar EL-Sadat to contemplate a radical settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict and the establishment of just and lasting peace in the Middle East. There followed the peace treaty with Israel (Camp David Accord) in March 26, 1979, with the participation of USA. This treaty was preceded by President Sadat's visit to Israel in 1977. On April 25, 1982, Israel withdrew its forces from the Sinai Peninsula and later from the frontier strip of Taba pursuant to arbitration by the International Court of Justice.
 Following President Sadat's death in 1981, President Muhammad Hosni Mubarak assumed office. Since then, he has sought to bring about internal stability, improve and firmly establish democratic practice, the rule of law and help realize social peace and national unity. Mubarak's main concern centers on achieving comprehensive development. |
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